Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, serve as intercellular communicators carrying molecular signatures from their donor cells that direct their interactions with recipient cells and determine tissue distribution. This review synthesizes current knowledge on how EV surface proteins influence cellular docking, uptake, and signaling while examining their roles in immune regulation, tumor cytotoxicity, metastatic progression, and immune evasion. The authors assess EV-associated surface signatures as potential liquid-biopsy biomarkers for disease detection, staging, prognosis, and treatment monitoring. Surface engineering approaches have demonstrated promise in preclinical models for enhancing tissue accumulation and therapeutic cargo delivery, while blocking pathogenic EV-cell interactions offers an alternative therapeutic strategy. However, advancing clinical translation requires standardized isolation and characterization protocols, resolution of EV heterogeneity at single-vesicle resolution, reproducible biodistribution data, scalable manufacturing processes, and rigorous safety and efficacy evaluation. Understanding how surface-associated features operate within this complex multifactorial system is essential for clarifying disease mechanisms and developing precise EV-based diagnostics and therapeutics.

Smart drug delivery systems (SDDS) represent an advanced approach to transporting therapeutic agents throughout the body with enhanced precision and safety. Unlike conventional drug delivery methods, SDDS can autonomously sense internal signals such as pH levels, enzyme activity, and molecular concentrations, or respond to external stimuli including light, magnetic fields, and ultrasound to release medications at optimal times and locations. The primary objective is administering the correct dose to the intended site at the precise moment in a controlled manner, thereby maximizing therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects and improving patient adherence. Key nanocarriers utilized in these systems include liposomes, nanospheres, quantum dots, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, and superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles. SDDS technology addresses critical challenges in traditional drug delivery, such as poor dissolution, enzymatic degradation, rapid clearance, and toxicity to healthy cells, while enabling drugs to cross physiological barriers effectively. The field traces its origins to Tanaka's 1978 polyacrylamide gel research and early thermosensitive liposome developments, establishing a foundation for modern intelligent pharmaceutical delivery systems that enhance treatment outcomes while reducing overall healthcare costs.

Researchers from Jilin Cancer Hospital and Tongji University have developed an innovative nanoplatform, R-DCPA-GPL-LNP@mET, to address triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), which remains clinically challenging due to tumor heterogeneity and immunosuppressive microenvironments that limit checkpoint blockade efficacy. The dual-responsive lipid nanoparticle co-delivers multiplexed mRNAs encoding bispecific macrophage engagers targeting both EGFR and TROP2, comprehensively engaging heterogeneous tumor cells. The platform features pH-responsive charge-reversal lipid DCPA for enhanced endosomal escape in acidic tumors and a GSH-cleavable anti-PD-L1 antibody for tumor-selective immunotherapy release. In orthotopic 4T1 TNBC mouse models, the nanoplatform reprogrammed tumor-associated macrophages toward tumoricidal phenotypes while triggering robust phagocytosis, neutralized oncogenic signaling pathways, and synergized with anti-PD-L1 to recruit cytotoxic T lymphocytes and Natural Killer cells while depleting immunosuppressive myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Results demonstrated marked tumor regression with favorable safety profiles over 22 days, supporting further development as a promising strategy for heterogeneous solid tumors.

Researchers at MIT have developed a novel approach to cellular immunotherapy that could dramatically simplify and reduce the cost of treating blood cancers and autoimmune diseases. Published in Nature Biotechnology, the study describes lipid nanoparticles engineered to deliver messenger RNA directly to natural killer cells within the body, reprogramming them to target cancerous or dysfunctional T cells. In mouse models, this single-injection strategy achieved complete remissions in aggressive melanoma, eliminated T cell lymphoma tumors, and healed liver damage in autoimmune hepatitis. The advancement addresses a critical bottleneck in current CAR T cell therapies, which require time-consuming and expensive manufacturing processes involving cell extraction, engineering, and expansion outside the body. Natural killer cells offer distinct advantages over engineered T cells, particularly for treating T cell malignancies and autoimmune conditions, since they can eliminate dysfunctional T cells without destroying themselves through fratricidal conflict. This in vivo reprogramming approach could substantially accelerate treatment timelines and accessibility while maintaining therapeutic efficacy.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have revolutionized treatment for mismatch repair-deficient colorectal cancer, yet approximately ninety-five percent of patients with mismatch repair-proficient disease experience minimal benefit due to immunologically "cold" tumor microenvironments, limited T-cell infiltration, and systemic immunosuppression, particularly in hepatic metastases. Existing clinical approaches combining multikinase inhibitors with anti-PD-1 therapy, dual checkpoint blockade, chemotherapy, or antiangiogenic agents have yielded modest and largely non-durable responses. This comprehensive review, published in the International Journal of Nanomedicine by researchers at China Medical University, synthesizes evidence on nanotechnology-enabled immunotherapy for colorectal cancer. The authors distinguish between clinically established evidence, early-phase clinical strategies, and preclinical concepts, aiming to develop a biomarker-enriched translational research agenda. By focusing on pharmacological remodeling of the tumor microenvironment rather than solely releasing checkpoint restraint, nanotechnology-based approaches offer promising potential to overcome current therapeutic limitations and improve outcomes in this treatment-resistant patient population.

Drug delivery systems have undergone significant transformation, evolving from traditional formulations toward sophisticated smart and artificial intelligence-assisted technologies. This transition represents a paradigm shift in pharmaceutical science, addressing limitations of conventional approaches such as poor bioavailability, systemic toxicity, and lack of targeted efficacy. Modern smart delivery systems utilize stimuli-responsive mechanisms, including pH-sensitive, temperature-responsive, and enzyme-triggered platforms, enabling precise drug release at disease sites. Integration of artificial intelligence has revolutionized the field by optimizing formulation parameters, predicting drug behavior, and personalizing treatment strategies through machine learning algorithms. Nanotechnology platforms, including liposomes, nanoparticles, and micelles, enhance drug stability and cellular uptake while reducing adverse effects. These advancements enable lower dosing requirements, improved patient compliance, and enhanced therapeutic outcomes. The convergence of smart materials and AI analytics represents a critical advancement in precision medicine, positioning next-generation drug delivery as essential for treating complex diseases including cancer, neurological disorders, and chronic conditions where conventional therapies prove inadequate.

Researchers have developed an innovative therapeutic approach to address the challenge of metastatic and castration-resistant prostate cancer by engineering mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) to selectively target and deliver therapeutic cargo. The platform utilizes PSMA-targeting single-chain variable fragments (PSMA-scFv) to enable precise delivery of small interfering RNA against ADAM9 (siADAM9), a key regulator implicated in tumor progression and adaptive androgen receptor signaling. In both hormone-sensitive LNCaP and castration-resistant CWR22Rv1 prostate cancer models, EV-mediated siADAM9 delivery effectively suppressed ADAM9 expression and inhibited malignant phenotypes including proliferation, migration, and tumor sphere formation. The treatment also reversed epithelial-mesenchymal transition and stemness-associated molecular programs while disrupting downstream signaling pathways involving AKR1C3-mediated androgen biosynthesis. Notably, EV-siADAM9 enhanced the efficacy of androgen-targeted therapies, including androgen deprivation therapy and abiraterone in both disease contexts. These findings demonstrate proof-of-concept for PSMA-targeted EV platforms as a promising strategy to overcome treatment resistance in advanced prostate cancer, warranting further preclinical development.

Smart drug delivery systems (SDDS) represent an advanced approach to therapeutic administration, designed to autonomously sense physiological signals and release medication at precise locations and times with minimal external intervention. These systems respond to external triggers such as light, magnetic fields, or ultrasound, as well as internal signals including pH levels, enzyme activity, and molecular concentrations. Key nanocarriers employed in SDDS include liposomes, nanospheres, quantum dots, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, and superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles. The fundamental objective is delivering the correct drug dosage to the intended site at the optimal moment, maximizing therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects and improving patient compliance. SDDS address critical challenges including poor drug dissolution, enzymatic degradation, rapid clearance, and cellular toxicity. Landmark developments include Tanaka's 1978 polymer gel research and concurrent thermosensitive liposome discoveries. An effective SDDS should remain stable in biological fluids, avoid immune responses, achieve proper cellular targeting, and maintain biocompatibility. This technology promises improved treatment outcomes, reduced toxicity, lower healthcare costs, and enhanced patient adherence to therapeutic regimens across multiple medical applications.

# Summary This article presents a comprehensive review of nanoparticle-enabled immune-dose shaping strategies in breast cancer treatment. The research examines how nanoparticles can be leveraged to optimize immunological outcomes during radiotherapy by modulating radiation-induced effects on both tumoral and systemic immunity. The study employs a structured translational evidence hierarchy to classify nanoparticle dose-exchange evidence and evaluates the dual immunological consequences of breast radiotherapy: tumor local immunogenicity resulting from radiation damage and adaptive immune activation, alongside systemic immune-cell depletion from lymphopenia. A critical finding is that tumor immunogenicity and lymphocyte preservation must be assessed simultaneously to optimize therapeutic benefit. The review also analyzes radiation-induced lymphopenia's clinical significance in breast cancer patients, including its incidence, severity, and kinetics. This work matters because it establishes a framework for developing nanotechnology-based interventions that can enhance anti-tumor immunity while mitigating radiation's immunosuppressive side effects, potentially improving clinical outcomes for breast cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy combined with immunotherapeutic approaches.

A Nature Biotechnology study published October 13, 2026 presents a significant advancement in CAR-NK cell therapy by shifting genetic engineering from ex vivo manufacturing to in vivo modification. Researchers used ligand-directed lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) decorated with engineered antibody fragments (scFvs) targeting NK-cell receptors like NKG2D and NKG2A to deliver CAR-encoding mRNA directly into patients' natural killer cells. In preclinical mouse models, this approach demonstrated efficient mRNA delivery and functional activity in B-cell depletion, autoimmune hepatitis, and tumor elimination. This represents a paradigm shift from traditional time-consuming and expensive cell collection, modification, and expansion protocols. However, critical questions remain about clinical applicability, particularly regarding NK-cell availability in immunocompromised cancer patients and the durability of engineered cells. The technology's true therapeutic value depends on understanding cell proliferation, tumor migration, longevity, and whether in vivo CAR-NK engineering provides durable immune protection or requires repeated administration rather than sustained immunity.

# Summary Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers represent a significant advancement in targeted drug delivery systems, addressing the critical challenge of delivering therapeutic agents precisely to disease sites while minimizing systemic exposure. These innovative nanoparticles are engineered to release their payload in response to specific environmental triggers such as pH changes, temperature fluctuations, light exposure, or enzyme activity. The technology leverages the distinct physiological conditions of diseased tissues—particularly the acidic microenvironment of tumors—to achieve selective drug release at target locations. By incorporating stimuli-responsive polymers and lipid-based materials into nanocarrier designs, researchers have demonstrated enhanced therapeutic efficacy and reduced off-target effects compared to conventional drug delivery methods. This approach is particularly valuable for cancer treatment, where controlled release improves drug bioavailability at tumor sites while protecting healthy tissues from toxic exposure. The development of these sophisticated delivery systems has profound implications for personalized medicine and represents a paradigm shift toward more effective and safer therapeutic interventions across multiple disease categories.

Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers represent an advanced approach to cancer therapy that leverages unique characteristics of the tumor microenvironment to improve drug delivery and therapeutic efficacy. These nanoparticles are engineered to release their payload in response to specific triggers present in cancer tissue, such as pH gradients, hypoxia, elevated enzyme concentrations, or temperature variations. By exploiting these microenvironmental differences between tumors and healthy tissue, these carriers achieve preferential drug activation at disease sites while minimizing systemic toxicity. A critical aspect of their development involves overcoming biological barriers including vascularization limitations, dense extracellular matrix components, and cellular uptake challenges that impede conventional drug delivery. The article examines various nanocarrier platforms and their mechanisms for penetrating these obstacles while maintaining stimulus sensitivity. Despite promising preclinical results demonstrating enhanced therapeutic outcomes and reduced side effects, translation to clinical practice remains limited. The review addresses the gap between laboratory success and real-world implementation, highlighting regulatory, manufacturing, and stability challenges that must be resolved before widespread clinical adoption. This emerging field holds significant potential for improving cancer treatment outcomes through intelligent, targeted drug delivery systems.

# CAR-NK Cell-Derived Exosomes in Cancer Therapy Researchers have published a comprehensive review in Frontiers in Immunology exploring the integration of chimeric antigen receptor natural killer cell-derived exosomes (CAR-NK-derived exosomes) as an innovative approach to cancer immunotherapy. The study, authored by Ganjalikhani Hakemi and colleagues, bridges cellular immunotherapy with nanomedicine by examining how exosomes—small extracellular vesicles naturally secreted by CAR-NK cells—can enhance cancer treatment efficacy. CAR-NK cells, engineered immune cells designed to recognize and attack cancer cells, produce exosomes containing therapeutic molecules that can be harnessed as delivery vehicles for anticancer agents. This innovative combination addresses key limitations of traditional CAR-NK cell therapies, including cellular toxicity and manufacturing complexity, while leveraging the inherent immunological properties of natural killer cells. The review highlights how CAR-NK-derived exosomes represent a promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy, offering reduced immunogenicity, improved bioavailability, and potential for targeted delivery. This convergence of cellular immunotherapy and nanomedicine technology could significantly expand therapeutic options for cancer patients while overcoming existing treatment obstacles.

Prodrug gene therapy represents an innovative approach to pharmaceutical delivery that leverages metabolic conversion to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Unlike traditional direct drug administration, prodrug gene therapy involves delivering inactive compounds that the body metabolizes into pharmacologically active drugs once administered. This strategy offers significant advantages in optimizing drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) profiles. By utilizing prodrugs, clinicians can improve bioavailability and reduce adverse effects associated with conventional therapies. The approach combines prodrug chemistry with gene therapy principles, enabling more targeted and efficient treatment delivery. This emerging therapeutic modality holds particular promise for conditions requiring sustained or localized drug activity, as the conversion process allows for better control over where and when active medications are released within the body. As research continues to advance this field, prodrug gene therapy may expand treatment options for various diseases while improving patient outcomes and safety profiles.

Nanoparticles have evolved from being viewed as passive carriers for therapeutic agents to recognized active immunomodulators that engage with the innate immune system. This comprehensive review, authored by researchers at Italy's National Institute of Health, examines how engineered nanoparticles interact with pattern recognition receptors, activate complement cascades, reprogram macrophage polarization, and induce trained immunity in innate immune cells. The analysis covers six nanoparticle classes and their effects on key immune populations including dendritic cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, neutrophils, and mast cells, while addressing critical signaling pathways such as cGAS–STING, Toll-like receptor signaling, and the NLRP3 inflammasome. The research emphasizes that understanding nanoparticle immunogenicity is essential for developing safe and effective nanomedicines. Two critical methodological considerations emerge: the need for rigorous experimental controls to distinguish responses from the nanoparticle carrier versus cargo or contaminants, and recognition that inter-individual variability significantly influences outcomes. This integrated framework combining immunogenicity assessment, nanotoxicology, and therapeutic exploitation is fundamental for advancing nanomedicine applications.

The rapidly global deployment of COVID-19 mRNA-LNP vaccines established the clinical feasibility of combining RNA medicine with LNP delivery systems, transforming a long-standing experimental concept into a scalable therapeutic modality, previously considered impossible. Currently, the value of mRNA-LNPs has been expanding from infectious disease vaccines to cancer immunotherapy, personalized neoantigen vaccination, in vivo immune-cell engineering, protein replacement therapy, mRNA-encoded biologics and genome editing, with particular relevance to hematology and oncology. However, in hematologic and oncologic settings, therapeutic success is constrained by biological barriers that less prominent in prophylactic vaccination. Systemically administered LNPs are strongly influenced by hepatic sequestration, protein corona formation and mononuclear-phagocyte clearance; solid tumors additionally present heterogeneous vasculature, variable enhanced permeability and retention, dense extracellular matrix, elevated interstitial pressure and limited intratumoral diffusion. Hematologic applications face a different set of constraints, including access to spleen and bone marrow, selective delivery to T cells, NK cells and hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), and preservation of the normal marrow niche.

Researchers have demonstrated a promising approach to making chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) cell therapies more affordable and accessible by combining lipid nanoparticle (LNP) technology with messenger RNA (mRNA) delivery. Traditionally, CAR T cell therapies require extracting patient cells, engineering them to express specific CARs, expanding them in culture, and reinfusing them—a time-consuming and expensive process. The new method uses LNP-mRNA to reprogram natural killer (NK) cells into CAR-expressing cells directly within patients, creating temporary but controllable therapeutic effects. Unlike traditional CAR T therapies approved by the FDA for cancer treatment, this LNP-mRNA approach avoids extensive ex vivo manufacturing while maintaining therapeutic efficacy. The mRNA is delivered via lipid nanoparticles that release their cargo in the cytoplasm where it translates into protein for several days before degradation. This positions LNP-mRNA therapies as a middle ground between gene therapy and small molecule drugs. The advancement could significantly reduce costs and complexity while expanding CAR cell therapy applications to more patients and conditions, including autoimmune disorders.

# Summary This article examines drug-drug conjugates (DDCs) as innovative preclinical platforms for enhancing therapeutic efficacy. The research explores the mutual prodrug concept, which extends beyond simple drug combinations by creating hybrid molecules that work synergistically. The architecture of these hybrid molecules is designed to bypass cellular defense mechanisms, particularly addressing multidrug resistance (MDR) through strategic reversal approaches. A key focus involves reducing systemic toxicity while maximizing targeted drug delivery through tumor-specific triggers, creating intelligent release systems. The article details physicochemical mapping using Hansen Solubility Parameters to characterize representative DDCs, establishing their feasibility for clinical translation. The study also explores emerging directions, including triple-drug hybrid conjugates and advanced smart release mechanisms to optimize therapeutic outcomes. These intelligent platforms represent a significant advancement in precision medicine, offering potential to overcome resistance mechanisms and minimize off-target effects—ultimately improving patient safety and treatment efficacy in oncology and other therapeutic domains.

Macrophage-based nanoplatforms represent a promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy, leveraging the inherent tumor-homing capacity and immunomodulatory functions of macrophages. This comprehensive review examines three primary platform types: macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles, macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles, and live macrophage carriers. These systems synergistically combine macrophage biological properties with nanocarrier advantages to enable targeted drug delivery while simultaneously modulating immune responses. Beyond their role as delivery vehicles, macrophages can be therapeutically reprogrammed through strategic interventions including CD47-SIRPα blockade and TLR7/MyD88 pathway activation to amplify antitumor immunity. The research, conducted by investigators across multiple Chinese institutions including Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine and China Medical University, demonstrates substantial preclinical promise. However, significant translational obstacles persist, including risks of cytokine release syndrome, scalable manufacturing constraints, and biological discrepancies between animal models and human immune systems. These challenges must be addressed to successfully advance macrophage-based biomimetic nano-drug delivery systems into clinical practice.

MIT engineers have developed an innovative approach to reprogram natural killer (NK) immune cells to target cancerous or autoreactive T cells associated with lymphoma and autoimmune hepatitis. Rather than extracting NK cells for external manufacturing, the team delivers lipid nanoparticles containing messenger RNA directly into patients' bodies. These mRNA molecules instruct NK cells to produce chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) proteins, enabling them to identify and eliminate diseased T cells. This CAR NK cell approach addresses a critical challenge in cellular immunotherapy by eliminating time-consuming and expensive ex vivo manufacturing processes. The research, led by Daniel Anderson from MIT's Department of Chemical Engineering and published in Nature Biotechnology, builds upon the success of FDA-approved CAR T cell therapies, which have demonstrated efficacy against blood cancers including leukemia and lymphoma. By enabling in vivo reprogramming of NK cells, this technique could potentially broaden therapeutic applications and reduce production costs, making advanced cancer treatments more accessible and efficient for patients across various disease contexts.